This report describes the frequency and nature of alcohol, tobacco and illicit drug portrayals in the most popular prime-time television series from the fall 1998-1999 season. Four consecutive episodes from each situation comedy and drama were analyzed. Key questions in this study were: How often are illicit drugs, tobacco, and alcohol depicted in programs that are popular with different ethnic and age groups? Who uses substances and in what context? How and how often are negative consequences of substance use portrayed?

Two terms in the findings require brief definitions. Substance use refers to visual portrayals of actual consumption or implied consumption, such as a character's ordering a drink or being seated at a restaurant table with a full glass of wine. Substance reference was noted when illicit drugs, tobacco or alcohol were seen, used or verbally mentioned. Thus, this broader category included all instances of substance use (explicit or implicit), as well as conversational references to substances or substance use.

The sample is comprised of four consecutive episodes of each of 42 top-rated prime-time series. An episode is one weekly installment of a situation comedy or drama. The term show is used to distinguish an entire series from a single episode of a series. Thirty of the 42 shows represented in the sample were comedies. Of the 168 episodes, 19 percent were labeled TVG, 59 percent were labeled TVPG, and 22 percent were labeled TV14.

Unless otherwise noted, the statistics in this report describe the proportion of episodes that contain some element of interest. Text and figures indicate whether findings pertain to: (a) all 168 episodes; (b) a subset of 80 episodes that were popular with different audiences, such as four episodes each of the top-20 shows among African-American teens, Hispanic teens, white teens, or adults (ages 25-54); (c) a subset of episodes in which substances were mentioned or used; or (d) all major characters, identified by credit or appearance in a show's title sequence or opening. Note that the term "top-teen episodes" refers to shows popular with teenagers, not necessarily produced for teenagers.

Figure 2: What proportion of episodes refer to substances or show substance use? Percentages based on all 168 episodes. Substance use refers to visual portrayals of actual consumption or impaired consumption. Substance reference was noted when illicit drugs, tobacco were seen, used or verbally mentioned.

A. How do top-rated prime-time television programs depict substance use?

Percentages are based on all 168 episodes.

Figure 3: What proportion of episodes portray substance use by one or more major characters? Percentages based on 80 top-teen episodes, 80 top-adult episodes, or all 168 episodes.

B. How does the frequency of substance use differ between episodes labeled TVG, TVPG, and TV14?

Percentages are based on 32 TVG, 99 TVPG, and 37 TV14 episodes, regardless of popularity with teens, adults, or both.

Frequency of Substance Use

C. How does the frequency of substance references differ in top-rated episodes among teens versus adults?

Percentages are based on 80 episodes popular with audiences ages 12-17 (top-teen episodes) and 80 episodes popular with audiences ages 25-54 (top-adult episodes).

Figure 4: What proportion of TVG, TVPG, and TV14 episodes portray substance use? Percentages based on 32 TVG episodes, 99 TVPG episodes, 37 TV14 episodes.

Figure 5: What are the characteristics of alcohol portrayals in top-rated teen and adult episodes? Percentages based on 80 top-teen episodes, 80 top-adult episodes, or 168 total episodes.

21. Major characters consumed alcohol in 53 percent of top-teen and 70 percent of top-adult episodes. They consumed non-alcoholic beverages in 90 percent of top-teen and 81 percent of top-adult episodes. (Figure 3)

22. Places and events where alcohol was served were a popular backdrop for much of the action and dialogue in top-rated teen and adult episodes. Characters drank alcohol at bars, restaurants or parties in 38 percent of top-teen episodes and in 50 percent of top-adult episodes. (Figure 5)

23. Bars, nightclubs, or restaurants where alcohol was served were permanent sets in 19 percent of top-teen episodes and 31 percent of top-adult episodes. For example, sets like the After Dark nightclub on "Beverly Hills, 90210" and the Moscow Tavern on "Drew Carey" served as central, frequent meeting places for characters. (Figure 5)

24. References to getting or being intoxicated were mentioned in 18 percent of top-teen episodes and 21 percent of top-adult episodes. (Figure 5)

25. One or more characters appeared to be intoxicated in 11 percent of top-teen episodes and 21 percent of top-adult episodes. (Figure 5)

26. Drinking by underage characters was rarely portrayed. Only 6 percent of the top-teen and 3 percent of top-adult episodes portrayed alcohol use by anyone who appeared to be under 21. (Figure 5)

D. How does the frequency of substance references differ in top-rated episodes among various teen audiences?

Percentages are based on 80 episodes most popular with African-American teens, 80 with Hispanic teens, and 80 with white teens, ages 12-17.

27. The frequency of illicit drug references was roughly the same for episodes most popular with African-American, Hispanic and white teens. About one-fifth of the top-rated episodes for each group contained at least one reference to illicit drugs. (Figure 6)

28. Three of the 80 top-rated episodes for African-American, Hispanic and white teens portrayed illicit drug use.

29. Episodes most popular with African-American teens were less likely than other episodes to mention and depict tobacco use. Characters used tobacco in 9 percent of episodes most popular with African-American teens, 23 percent of episodes most popular with Hispanic teens, and 20 percent of episodes most popular with white teens. (Figure 7)

30. Sixty-six percent of episodes most popular with African-American teens, 69 percent of episodes most popular with Hispanic teens, and 73 percent of episodes most popular with white teens contained at least one reference to alcohol. (Figure 6)

Figure 6: What proportion of episodes refer to substances? Percentages based on 80 episodes popular with different audiences.

Figure 7: What proportion of episodes refer to substances? Percentages based on 80 episodes popular with different audiences. Substance use refers to visual portrayals of actual consumption or implied consumption. Substance reference was noted when illicit drugs, tobacco or alcohol were seen, used or verbally mentioned

31. Episodes most popular with white teens were more likely than other episodes to mention drinking to excess: 10 percent of episodes most popular with African-American teens, 11 percent of episodes most popular with Hispanic teens, and 19 percent of episodes most popular with white teens contained references to being or getting intoxicated. (Figure 6)

32. Alcohol use was portrayed in 64 percent of episodes most popular with African-American teens, 61 percent of episodes most popular with Hispanic teens, and 64 percent of episodes most popular with white teens. (Figure 5)

33. One or more major characters consumed alcohol in 46 percent of episodes most popular with African-American teens, 48 percent of episodes most popular with Hispanic teens, and 51 percent of episodes most popular with white teens.

E. How much on-screen time is occupied by alcohol portrayals?

Percentages are based on 80 top-adult episodes and 80 top-teen episodes.

34. One or more major characters was shown drinking alcohol for an average of 1.6 minutes of each hour during top-teen episodes, and 2.3 minutes per hour during top-adult episodes. This compared with 2.4 minutes and 1.8 minutes, respectively, for non-alcoholic beverages. (Figure 8)

35. On average, 3.4 minutes per hour of top-teen episodes took place in typical drinking settings and venues (e.g., parties, clubs, bars). The amount of time in such settings was 5.7 minutes per hour in top-adult episodes. (Figure 8)

F. How common is substance use among major characters?

Another indicator of the frequency of substance use in prime time is the proportion of major characters that use illicit drugs, tobacco, and alcohol. A total of 270 major characters appeared in the 42 television series. Most major characters were male (56 percent) and between the ages of 18 and 39 (59 percent); 22 percent were under 18; 19 percent were 40 or older. The majority were white (77 percent); 22 percent of major characters were African American, four were Hispanic (2 percent) and one was Asian. Characters were coded as using illicit drugs, tobacco, alcohol, and non-alcoholic beverages if they were seen consuming these substances in one or more episodes.

36. Illicit drug use by major characters was rarely observed. Only three major characters were actually shown using illicit drugs. One teen and one adult male used marijuana. One female teen consumed a drink that someone else had drugged. (Figure 9)

37. Illicit drug use by major characters was also implied in the dialogue or by actions that occurred off-screen. When inferences about drug use in the recent or distant past were considered in addition to observed use, 10 percent of characters under 18, 2 percent of characters ages 18-39, and 2 percent of characters ages 40 or older used illicit drugs.

38. The six major characters under 18 who used illicit drugs (voluntarily) smoked marijuana.

39. None of the major characters under 18 smoked cigarettes, only one drank alcohol, and 75 percent drank non-alcoholic beverages.

40. The three adult major characters who used illicit drugs used marijuana.

41. Eight percent of adult major characters used tobacco, 61 percent drank alcohol, and 74 percent drank non-alcoholic beverages.

42. Smoking was more common among men than women (10 percent versus 6 percent). About 9 percent of white and 7 percent of African-American adult major characters smoked.

43. Alcohol consumption was more prevalent among men than women (64 percent versus 56 percent). About 60 percent of white and 63 percent of African-American adult major characters drank alcohol.

44. None of the major characters attempted to quit drinking or smoking on screen. Two adults described themselves as former alcoholics; none described themselves as having quit or having tried to quit using illicit drugs or tobacco.

Figure 8: How much screen time is devoted to drinking alcohol? Minutes per hour of program time (excluding commercials) in which: a) one or more major characters is shown either drinking or with a container from which they are known to be drinking; and b) the episode's action takes place in a typical alcohol consumption setting--party, night club, bar, tavern, and so on. Percentages based on 80 top-teen episodes, 80 top-adult episodes, or all 168 episodes.

Context of Substance Use

G. How are illicit drugs portrayed?

Percentages are based on the 32 episodes that mentioned illicit drugs or 6 episodes that portrayed illicit drug use, regardless of their popularity with teens, adults, or both.

45. Illicit drugs were more often talked about than seen. The generic term "drugs" was mentioned in 44 percent of episodes, marijuana in 34 percent, heroin or other opiates in three episodes, hallucinogens, such as ecstasy, mushrooms, and peyote in three episodes, and crack or powder cocaine in three episodes.

46. The few episodes that depicted drug use showed marijuana use in four episodes, peyote in one episode, and ecstasy in one episode. In addition, a character was drugged with rohypnol, also referred to as "the date-rape drug," in one episode.

47. Fifty percent of the episodes contained a humorous reference to illicit drugs. These statements typically joked about marijuana use or drug rehab.

48. More than one-third of the episodes that mentioned drugs (41 percent) contained at least one negative statement about illicit drugs. These statements typically advised characters to avoid drugs or warned about the hazardous effects of illicit drug use.

49. Only one episode contained a positive statement about illicit drug use: A character persuaded his friend to smoke marijuana by describing it as harmless and beneficial. The same episode also contained negative statements about drug use and portrayed clearly negative consequences to a character who used marijuana.

50. Negative consequences of illicit drug use were depicted in four of the six episodes that portrayed drug use. For example, drug use led to dangerous health consequences, to arrest, and to losing a coveted job.

H. How are alcohol and tobacco portrayed?

Alcohol

Percentages are based on 119 episodes that portrayed alcohol use, regardless of popularity with teens, adults, or both.

51. Characters drank beer in 65 percent of episodes that portrayed alcohol use, wine or champagne in 56 percent, and hard liquor or cocktails in 50 percent. (Figure 9)

52. Alcohol consumption was frequently portrayed in humorous contexts. Nearly half of the episodes (45 percent) associated alcohol use with humor. (Figure 10)

53. More episodes made drinking alcohol look like a positive experience (40 percent) than a negative experience (10 percent).

54. Twenty percent of episodes conveyed the idea that drinking alcohol promotes relaxation or having a good time.

55. Thirteen percent of episodes indicated that alcohol use can impair thinking, speech, or actions.

56. Few episodes expressed positive statements about drinking alcohol (8 percent), negative statements about drinking alcohol (7 percent), or limits on when, where, or how much should be consumed (9 percent). In addition, only one episode showed characters who refused a drink when offered. (Figure 10)

57. Negative consequences of alcohol use were either mentioned or portrayed in almost one-fourth of the episodes (23 percent). Fifteen percent of episodes showed clearly negative consequences to characters who drank, such as impaired functioning (slurred speech, passing out) and effects on interpersonal relationships (disapproval from friends, co-workers). In addition, characters talked about negative consequences (either what had happened or what could happen when alcohol is consumed) in 11 percent of episodes. (Figure 11)

Figure 9: What proportion of major characters use substances? Percentages based on 59 characters under 18 years old, 160 characters ages 18-39, 51 characters 40 years or older.

Figure 10: How often are illicit drugs and alcohol Associated with: Illicit drugs Alcohol (View larger image) Percentages based on 32 episodes with any reference to illicit drugs. *Percentage based on 6 episodes portraying drug use. Percentages based on 119 episodes portraying alcohol use.

Tobacco

Percentages are based on 31 episodes that portrayed tobacco use, regardless of popularity with teens, adults, or both.

58. Characters smoked cigarettes in 68 percent of episodes in which tobacco used was portrayed, smoked cigars in 36 percent, and smoked pipes or chewed tobacco in 7 percent. (Figure 11)

59. Almost one-fourth of the episodes (23 percent) expressed a negative statement about smoking by criticizing the habit or communicating limits about where people could smoke. Positive statements about smokers or smoking occurred in four episodes (13 percent).

60. Negative consequences of smoking were mentioned or portrayed in only two episodes.

I. How often do substance references occur in prime-time advertisements?

Percentages are based on all 168 episodes, 80 top-rated teen episodes, or 80 top-rated adult episodes.

61. Ads for alcoholic beverages appeared infrequently - in only 9 percent of all episodes. By comparison, 38 percent of all episodes contained ads for non-alcoholic beverages.

62. Only one of the top-teen episodes and two of the top-adult episodes contained an advertisement for beer. (Figure 12)

63. Ads for wine appeared in 8 percent of all episodes, 6 percent of top-teen episodes, and 13 percent of top-adult episodes. (Figure 12)

64. Ads for medicines that can be obtained only with a doctor's prescription appeared in 14 percent of all episodes. These prescription medicine ads appeared in almost as many of the top-teen as top-adult episodes (11 percent versus 13 percent). (Figure 12)

Figure 11: What yypes of illicit drugs, tobacco, and alcohol appear? (View larger image) Percentages based on 32 episodes mentioning illicit drug use, 31 episodes portraying tobacco use and 119 episodes portraying alcohol use. Percentages sum to more than 100% because multiple substances appeared in the same episodes.

65. Ads for over-the-counter medicines, such as pain relievers, cold remedies, and smoking cessation aids appeared in 42 percent of all episodes, 43 percent of top-teen episodes, and 50 percent of top-adult episodes. (Figure 12)

66. Alcohol use appeared in ads for other products, such as restaurants, credit cards and hotels; 59 percent of top-teen and 60 percent top-adult episodes contained one or more ads like these.

67. Alcohol use appeared in network ads to promote upcoming programs; 50 percent of top-teen and 63 percent of top-adult episodes included one or more promotional spots that portrayed alcohol use.

68. Anti-drug ads with messages about drug prevention or treatment appeared in 13 percent of all episodes, 16 percent of top-teen episodes, and 11 percent of top-adult episodes.

69. Anti-smoking ads appeared in 9 percent of all episodes, 11 percent of top-teen episodes, and 5 percent of top-adult episodes.

70. Ads that warned about the dangers of drinking and driving appeared in only one episode.

Figure 12: What proportion of episodes contain commercials for beverages or medications? (View larger image) Percentages based on 80 top-teen episodes, or 168 total episodes.