Rationale and Background

This research on substance use in popular movies and music was prompted by two facts: that substance use and abuse constitute a serious problem among America’s youth, and that American teenagers are heavy consumers of motion pictures and popular music. Also influencing the study were widely held public perceptions that media content incorporates a great many messages and images related to substance use, and that it plays a significant role in the creation and perpetuation of America’s substance use problem. Documenting the frequency and nature of substance use portrayals in movies and music is a necessary first step toward understanding the possible connection between symbolic media representations of substances and real-world substance use.

It is important to acknowledge that the mere existence of a certain type of media portrayal does not ensure that audiences will be influenced by it. The ultimate effects of media exposure depend on multiple factors: how individuals interpret messages, the extent to which the messages are contradicted or supported by other sources, the dynamics of parent-child interaction, peer influence, social and cultural background, and so forth. Still, if it is true that substance use appears frequently and is portrayed positively in movies and music, then it is reasonable to hypothesize that these portrayals may be influencing young people to use alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs.

On the other hand, if substances are portrayed relatively rarely in movies and music lyrics, or if they are depicted in ways that deglamorize or otherwise discourage use, then it makes little sense to attribute any of society’s substance abuse problems to the media. Equally important, if movies and music do contribute to the problem—that is, if they legitimize, glamorize, or otherwise promote the use of substances—then, logically, they could also help solve the problem by depicting substance use realistically with consequences, or as deviant, unglamorous, and socially unacceptable. In other words, although a variety of other factors may alter the size and nature of media effects, media content clearly matters.

Substance Use Among America’s Youth

Beyond question, the U.S. faces an epidemic of underage and illegal substance use. In 1997, more than 54 percent of U.S. high school seniors had used an illegal drug at least once, as had more than 29 percent of eighth graders. Among adolescents ages 12 to 17, the average ages of first use of marijuana, cocaine, and heroin were 13.7, 14.7, and 14.4 years, respectively. Youth tobacco smoking rates are higher now than at any time in the past 17 years. Two-thirds of U.S. high school students have tried cigarettes and more than one-third currently smoke. Every day another 3,000 American children and teenagers become regular smokers.

Alcohol consumption among adolescents remains at unacceptably high levels. More than 80 percent of U.S. high school students have tried alcohol; in 1997, more than 31 percent of 12^th graders, 25 percent of 10^th graders, and 14 percent of 8^th graders claimed to have consumed five or more alcoholic drinks in the preceding 2 weeks. Perhaps most disturbing, among 12- to 17-year-olds who exhibit no other problem behaviors, those who have used marijuana, alcohol, or cigarettes in the past month are 17 times more likely to consume illegal drugs such as cocaine, heroin, or LSD than those who have not used these drugs.

Adolescents, Movies, and Music

Movies and music are extremely popular among adolescents (see Appendix A). Although teens make up only 16 percent of the U.S. population, they account for 26 percent of all movie admissions. Ninety percent of 12- to 20-year-olds report going to movies at least occasionally, and their viewing is not limited to theaters. Sixty-three percent of 9- to 17-year-olds watch at least one rented video per week. Watching videos is one of America’s favorite leisure time activities, with video revenues almost triple that of theatrical box office receipts.

Popular music is the backdrop for much of adolescent life. Teenagers name music listening as their most preferred non-school activity. Moreover, when attention is paid to "background" listening (listening while working, doing homework, driving, etc.), estimates of adolescents’ exposure to music average as high as 4 to 6 hours daily. Recording industry figures indicate that 87 percent of all Rock music sales, 65 percent of Hot-100, 90 percent of R&B and Rap, and 64 percent of Country-Western are accounted for by people age 24 and under.

Previous Studies on Substance Use in Media

Of the systematic reviews of the frequency of substance use portrayals in media published since 1980, almost all have focused on television (17 studies); only four have looked at movies, and music lyrics have been ignored. For the most part, content analyses have concentrated exclusively on alcohol or tobacco. Illicit drugs have received little attention (two studies), and only one study looked at all three substances simultaneously (see Appendix B). Most studies have examined media portrayals simply by reporting the percentage of programs or movies in which a substance appears or is "consumed." Few studies have attempted to examine the deeper issues explored in this research, such as the types of characters involved in substance use or the consequences attached to use.

Theoretical Context

A long tradition of empirical research documents the extent to which people’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors are influenced as a function of the frequency with which media portray particular behaviors, their prevalence within specific populations or contexts, and such elements of the portrayal as motives, consequences, and setting. In particular, cultivation theory argues that audiences perceive behaviors portrayed frequently in the media (e.g., crime, violence, social deviance), as typical or normal and therefore more acceptable. For instance, a recent study of high school students found that frequent talk show viewers dramatically overestimated the frequency of high-risk behaviors, such as teen sexual activity, teen pregnancy, and running away from home. Accordingly, one goal of this study was to determine the frequency with which movies and music lyrics portray substance use behavior, including the proportion of adults and youth, males and females, and antagonists and protagonists who consume illegal drugs, tobacco, or alcohol.

Social learning theory also provided guidance for the study. According to this theory, media messages influence young people by providing explicit, concrete "models" for behaviors (e.g., smoking marijuana), attitudes (e.g., taking an anti-drug point of view), and feelings (e.g., fearing the effects of drug use). Whenever a child or adolescent encounters a media depiction or portrayal as in a movie or song, the potential exists for the behavior to be imitated. Research on social learning theory also demonstrates that the likelihood of imitation depends on the context surrounding the portrayal, particularly consequences attached to the behavior. Generally, perceived negative consequences (e.g., someone dying of an overdose) decrease the probability of a modeling effect, and perceived positive consequences (e.g., gaining social acceptance by drinking at a party) increase the probability.

Further, young audience members are more likely to learn and imitate behaviors performed by attractive, successful, or powerful role models or associated with positive outcomes such as approval, money, power, romance, and sex. Interestingly, even the absence of a negative outcome—such as when a teen character is not punished for using drugs—often has the same influence as an explicit positive consequence or reward. Thus, a second goal of this study was to describe the contexts in which substance use occurs.